Chapter Report: Teaching Reading

 There are many reasons why getting students to read English texts are one of the teachers’ responsibilities: for future careers, study purposes, and pleasure (Harmer, 2001a p. 68).  Besides, Harmer (2001a p.68) also claims that providing an interesting and engaging reading activity also influences the success of language acquisition. Therefore in classroom activity teachers should be able to provide the reading activity which is suitable with students’ proficiency-level by choosing the appropriate topics and stimulating students to do further learning experiences, such as: conducting a group discussion or making a response based on the text explained.

The teaching reading which emphasizes only on the vocabulary and the generic structure will not enhance students’ understanding of the message conveying in the text. As we know, texts mainly deal with meaning, the message which the authors want to deliver to the readers. If teaching reading mainly focus on the grammatical rules or the structures of the text itself, how could the students identify what message conveyed in the texts? It is, probably, one of many aspects that make teaching reading somewhat difficult.

For many EFL (English as Foreign Language) students, reading is difficult to be mastered since there are many words, especially the new ones, which cannot be understand easily. Besides, they are also mainly bounded to the teaching of structure, generic structure of the text. This problem leads to distract the acquisition of understanding of the text itself.

This chapter report will highlight some basic concepts in teaching reading, such as: process in reading and the types of reading along with their brief description. Besides, it will also summarize and comment on the teaching reading demonstration conducted a few weeks ago by Ibu Ika.

Process in Reading

There are two processes that are recognized in reading: bottom-up process and top-down-process. In bottom-up process, readers must first recognize a multiplicity of linguistic signals (letters, morphemes, syllables, words, phrases, grammatical cues, discourse markers) and use their linguistic data-processing mechanisms to impose some sort of order on these signals. Meanwhile, top-down process deals with the understanding of texts based on readers’ own intelligence and experience (Brown, 2001 p. 298).

Types of Reading

            Beside two processes mentioned above, reading is also divided into two types: extensive reading and intensive reading. Extensive reading is carried out to achieve a general understanding of a usually somewhat longer text. It is usually performed outside of class time, for example in reading for pleasure. Meanwhile, intensive reading is usually a classroom- oriented focusing on the linguistic features of the text (Brown, 2001 p. 312-313). Basically, those reading categories cover two most important skills in reading: skimming and scanning. Skimming is a way to get a general idea of what the text is about (reading for the gist). Meanwhile scanning has something to do with the reading for detailed comprehension (specific information) (Brown, 2001; Harmer, 2001a p. 69; Harmer, 2001b p. 283).

Summary and Comment on Teaching Demonstration

            Teaching demonstration presented by Ibu Ika generally follow the principles in interactive reading: the task matches to the topic, the activity stimulate students to learn, include both bottom-up and top-down processing, and divide the activity into some phases (Brown, 2001 p.313-316; Harmer, 2001a p. 70).

In this teaching demonstration, teacher sequenced the reading activity into pre-reading, during-reading, and after-reading phases. Through the sequencing of activity, students will be helped to get better understanding of the texts. Although the series of activity may not fit all contexts, it serves a general guide for reading class at least (Brown, 2001 p. 315).

In the pre-reading activity, teacher stimulated students to predict what the text is about by giving a game containing the words (clues) which will be used in the text later on. Teacher used the whiteboard to make a semantic mapping or clustering of the text based on the clues given. The strategy of semantic mapping or grouping ideas into meaningful clusters helps the readers to provide some order of the chaos (Brown 2001, p. 308). In my opinion, by giving the students some inputs related to the text that will be learnt provide many advantages, such as: reducing the ‘shock’ that will be faced by students while reading a text because their lack of vocabularies, providing a general visualization of the text, etc. After getting the clues, teacher asked them to discuss in group what the text is going about (prediction). It is important since prediction is major factor in reading – people usually have a good idea of the content before actually read (Harmer, 2001a p. 70).

During the main activity, teacher gave the students an incomplete narrative text and asked them to read it carefully. After that, students are asked to compare their prediction to the text given. I personally believe that this main activity is engaging since teacher provide different technique to learn reading. In line with this, Harmer (2001 p. 70) noted that when students are stimulated with the topic or the task, they get much more from what is being learnt. In traditional technique, mainly students will focus on the linguistic features of the text, however, in this activity they are treated differently; making a prediction and comparing it to the real text.

Since the text is not a complete text, in post-reading activity teacher focused their lesson on how to respond to it: continuing the text using their understanding got from pre- and main-activity. Actually, in this activity students needed to predict the rest of the text. I think with the understanding and vocabulary received from previous activities, students will be easier to do it. The way students predict (response) indicates that they have got the point or message of the text. Thus it provokes their personal engagement of the text and language (Harmer, 2001 p. 70).

Overall, the teaching demonstration has successfully engaged students in reading activity through the variety of activities provided. Those activities help the students to get understanding of the text step-by-step (scaffolding). Besides, the activities also give the students a chance to think and respond to the text: they are first provided by the useful inputs in pre-reading activities which will be useful to respond to the text (continuing the rest of the text). Moreover, the interactive strategy applied by teacher during the whole lesson is the most important part in teaching reading. Through the application of interactive strategy, students will be more engaging so that it will also increase students’ involvement during the lesson.

Chapter Report 3: A Methodical History of Language Teaching

In language teaching and learning, we recognize three important terms; approach, method, and technique. Those terms are important to be known by teachers because they will be applied in planning and conducting teaching and learning activity. Basically, approach refers to the theoretical frameworks and beliefs underlying the nature of language, the nature of language learning, and the pedagogical implications. Meanwhile, method is a systematic presentation of language based on the selected approach. It usually deals with how to reach the objectives or goals of language learning itself. In addition to that, we also recognize the technique in language learning. Technique refers to the specific activities applied in the classroom which are related to the approach and method used with the purpose to realize the lesson objectives. The activities include exercise or tasks used in the language classroom (Brown, 2001: 14-16).

There are many well-known methodologies in language learning; the grammar translation method, Gouin and the series method, the direct method, the audiolingual method, cognitive code learning, designer method, etc (Brown, 2001). Some of them would be seen as a traditional one, or some would be a modern one. In fact, the methodologies in language teaching and learning developed as the world changed. The new methodologies appear based on a research or the needs of the language itself. Based on that reason, probably, there is no best methodology to be applied in the classroom since both traditional and modern methodologies could be used depending on the students’ needs and teachers’ preference. Besides, they also have their own advantages and disadvantages. In this case, this is the teachers’ job to decide the most possible methodology to be applied in their classroom by considering students’ needs and the nature of language and language learning.

The grammar translation method is a very classical language learning methodology in the world. According to Brown (2001: 18) this method emphasize on the studying of grammar (language structures), vocabulary memorization, translation a text, and writing exercise. Teachers who applied this methodology tend to teach the grammar explicitly without explaining any context in which such grammar should be used. In addition to that, the classroom is often not communicative since teachers would give a long explanation on grammar. It is ironic because teachers did not teach the nature of language – the communicative competence. Although this method, old school method, is not effective to build up students’ communicative competence, still there are many teachers who applied it in the classroom. For instance, when I was in Junior High School, my English teacher often explained the vocabulary and grammatical structure during the classroom activity. He gave a very limited chance to students to speak up. As a result, even though I mastered the grammatical structures, I still have a difficulty in delivering my ideas orally. It happened when I took the English practical test at the end of third grade in Junior High School. In line with this, Brown (2001: 19) said that the grammar translation method does virtually nothing to enhance a student communicative ability in the language.

In the view point of the series method and the direct method, the second or foreign language learning should be set as natural as the first language (Brown, 2001: 19-21). It is important since naturally human learn a language in sequence: from the easiest to the most difficult one. Based on the statement above, teachers tend to avoid the explicit explanation of grammar since it is too complex to be understood. For instance, teachers should provide the activity which stimulates students to communicate. Besides, they should also create the classroom situation which allows students to get many exposures in TL.

Meanwhile, the community language learning developed by Charles Curran (1972), emphasize on the affective domain of the learners. This method focused on the social dynamic between teacher and student in the classroom activity since he believed that language was essentially used for social communication tool (Brown, 2001: 25). Teacher who apply this method will position himself to be a counselor. Through this role, teacher facilitated students with a close understanding so that students would be more comfortable during the lesson. I experienced this kind of activity when I was in the High School. Mostly, teacher grouped students into small groups consisting of 4-5 people. We were asked to discuss certain topics dealing with the materials delivered. When we were facing the difficulty to reach a conclusion, she actually facilitated us by giving some explanation and the analogy of similar case, of course, with a friendly gesture and expression.

The most debatable method in language teaching and learning is the communicative language teaching. This method is a little bit similar with the community language learning on the focus point of language use. According to Brown (2001: 34) this method views the language as a system for the expression of meaning; primary function – interaction and communication. Teachers can provide a rich activity through this method. Generally, they will provide the activity which drills students’ ability in communication; discussion, problem-solving, etc. Besides, teachers also provide as many authentic materials as possible. These authentic materials will relate what students have learned in classroom to the reality of using language in real-life situations. The explanation of grammar or structure of the text will also be accommodated by this method, but, of course implicitly after students have understood the contexts to use it. It could be applied even for the young learners. As I observed on the teaching demonstration presented by Ibu Ika, she (teacher) could simplify the explanation on grammar through an easy way: relating it to the context and students’ prior knowledge. Besides, she also provided many activities to stimulate students to speak up. In fact, by a well classroom management, she also gave the equal opportunity to almost students to speak up. It was important since she, as a teacher, could stimulate students to learn more in order to achieve the objectives – the communicative competence. Besides, in communicative language teaching, teachers also have to consider to what their students’ needs and wants (Brown, 2001: 34). For instance, if teachers are teaching mechanical engineering students, they should provide the materials which is suitable for them; how to read a manual, how to handle customer, etc. Such materials will probably be used for their future working situation so that teachers, in this case, also support students’ to achieve not only the objectives of the course, but also their future career.  

Short Summary: The Language-Culture Connection

Language has a strong relationship with the culture. The use of language will reflect the culture of certain communities or societies. This means that the language cannot be separated from its culture. When someone is learning one language, he/she will also learn its culture both directly and indirectly. It also happens when we are teaching EFL to the students. As a teacher, we should connect our classroom activity to the culture in which the language is used. In line with this, Brown (2001: 64) stated that whenever teachers teach a language, they also teach a complex system of cultural customs, values, and ways of thinking, feeling, and acting of the speakers of the Target Language. 

In conducting the classroom activities, teachers should also consider to the objectives or goals of the course itself. For instance, the goal for EFL is to give the knowledge of English which is useful for students’ future working or academic achievement. Basically, students in EFL country do not have any immediate needs to use English in daily activity. They only use English, mostly, in classroom. Based on the reasons above, although there is no immediate need to use English, teachers should, at least, let them acculturate with the culture of language they are learning for by providing a rich, contextual activity in the classroom. Through the contextual activities provided by the teachers, the acquisition of the TL will be increasing although they only get the TL exposure in classroom. In line with this, Brown (2001: 65) added that students’ language acquisition will be more successful with the help of contextual activities allowing them to adapt the new cultural milieu. 

There are some useful activities which can be applied by teachers dealing with the Language-Cultural principles, such as; 

•  Conducting a cross-cultural discussion between the culture of students’ country and the culture of Target Language. In this activity, students can learn the strengths and weaknesses of each culture. For example, they are asked to discuss why most people in English speaking country really appreciate time, why we should maintain the eye-contact when we are having conversation with other people, etc.

•  Explaining the cultural connotations, especially the sociolinguistics aspect, of language (Brown, 2001: 64).

• Choosing the most appropriate contextual materials to be taught to the students (not containing cultural offensive aspects). For example, teachers should provide the materials which are free from gender bias, culture bias, and racism.

•  Conducting an activity which can encourage students to promote their own culture using English. For example, asking students to discuss their cultures and presenting the result of discussion in front of the class.

Besides, teachers should also help students to be aware of acculturation and its stages. If they found some misunderstanding when relating the culture of TL and the culture of students, teacher should assist them to, at least, understand the difference of both cultures by giving the explanation that there is no culture better than others. In this case, teachers should give explanation that students can take the benefit from the TL cultures which is harmonious with their culture. Besides, teachers should pay more attention to the importance of TL as a powerful tool for adjustment in the new culture (Brown, 2001: 65). 

Generally the Language-Cultural principle has the similarities on the classroom application and implication with the Language Ego and Self-Esteem principles. The understanding between language and its culture will help students’ affective developmental process (Brown, 2001: 65). Thus, by considering the language-culture relationship, students can express their ideas or opinions, as well as their emotions, through the language they are learning for.

Chapter Report 2: The Principles of Language Teaching and Learning

There are some foundation principles which have to be considered when we are teaching language; cognitive principles, affective principles, and linguistic principles. Those principles should be applied by teachers in order to make their teaching and learning activity more meaningful.

In terms of cognitive principles, teachers should make their activity stimulating for the learners. Basically, the term ‘cognitive’ relates to the mental and intellectual function (Brown, 2001: 55). There are some important aspects which can motivate learners to involve in their activity, such as; automaticity, meaningful learning, reward, motivation, and strategic investment. 

Meanwhile, in terms of the affective principles, teachers should recognize that their learners have different characteristics. Therefore, they have to consider to language ego, self-confidence, risk-taking, and the language-culture connection. 

In terms of linguistic principles, teacher should pay more attention to the native language effect, interlanguage, and communicative competence since we are teaching the learners which have different culture and language structure from the Target Language (TL).

Generally, when we are teaching the foreign language learners, as a teacher, we should make the class situation as interesting as possible. So that learners will get motivated with the activity. To make it more meaningful, teachers should focus their activity on the objectives or goals of the course, since if we miss it students will get nothing from our lessons. Trying to make the activity focusing on language use rather than language structure is better because we know that learners, probably, get the TL exposure only in the classroom. 

The application of considering students’ needs and objectives of the course is probably best suit for Vocational High School students. They have their own needs depending on what majors they take. They need foreign language exposure to support them to communicate in future working situations. So, the activity that teachers provide should, at least, represent their future working situations.

Besides, teachers also have to know that their native language will greatly affect on the TL acquisition (Brown, 2001: 65). Based on that reason, when teachers found some mistakes on their students language use, teachers should not judge it wrong or inappropriate since there is a different structure between TL and L1. To avoid this, teacher’s feedback will be beneficial for them. For example, through teachers’ feedback, learner will recognize their weaknesses. Besides, learners also can revise their mistakes sooner or later. In addition to that, to gain communicative competence at the end of the course, teachers should provide the activity as authentic as possible since language is used in real-life situations.

The appearance (physical appearance) of teachers plays an important part in their teaching success. The appearance or physical presence it is not only the way they dressed up, but also their movement, the way they stand, gestures, their contact with students, etc. (Harmer, 2007: 15). Based on the statement above, teacher can use their physical characteristics to control the activity in classroom. For example, teacher movement during the activity will give some benefits; give the equal attention to every student, control the students during the activity, etc. In fact, many students will get easily bored if their teachers do not make any movement during the teaching and learning activity – sitting on their chair all the time. Most of successful teachers move around the classroom to some extent. It is used to attract students’ interest in their teaching and learning activity (Harmer, 2007: 16).

Besides, the teachers’ voice is also important to be considered. Teachers should manage their voice well in classroom so that every student, even for those who are sitting at the back or corner, could hear their explanation clearly. It doesn’t mean that teachers need to shout, but they should adjust their voice volume since we know that shouting in the classroom will bring a negative impact on learners’ feeling. Besides, teacher can also use their voice (intonation) to emphasize to some important things. Through this emphasize, students will easily recognize what the main point of the lesson is. 

A good teacher can provide many integrated activity to their students. Besides, they will also be responsible to time. In this case, teacher should arrange the classroom activity from the easiest one to the most challenging one. It is important because through staging the activity we can see students’ progress. We cannot provide the most challenging activity first, since students need to be stimulated to reach that stage. During the activity, teacher should also tell to the students about the objectives of the lesson; what we are going to learn, how many activities in the lesson, etc. it will help students to make a clear awareness of the end of something and the beginning of what is coming next (Harmer, 2007: 17).

For many teachers, seating arrangement is one of important factors to be considered in classroom. The way teachers arrange their students’ seating position will bring (dis)advantages on their teaching and learning activity. There are some well-known seating arrangement, such as; orderly rows, circle, separate table, and horsehoe (Harmer, 2007: 18). In fact, there are no best seating arrangements to be applied in the classroom. Each of them has its own (dis)advantages so that teacher can choose seating arrangement depending on their preference and condition. The seating arrangement will also help teachers to grouping their students on the particular learning activity. When, for example, teachers want their students to have a small discussion teacher can arrange the seating arrangement into separate table which each of the table will be consist of five students (group work). It gives benefit to learners since they can be controlled easily. In addition, teachers can also interact and give a close attention when learners are doing group work.

Actually, there are some ways to grouping the students. Teachers can ask them to work in pair, work in group of five people, solowork, and even a whole class. The grouping itself depends to a large extent on teacher style and students preferences (Harmer, 2007: 21). Teacher will get some benefits form grouping their students. For example, teachers can save their energy to control their students if they are asked to work in group, teachers will easily give feedback to some students who need extra explanation, and through grouping students will have the equal opportunity to speak and share their ideas on particular topics. 

There are some principles should be paid attention carefully by the teachers in conducting teaching and learning activity; Engage, Study, and Activate (ESA) (Harmer, 2007: 25). Engage means that in planning the activity, teacher should, as interesting as possible, make an activity which attracts and stimulates students’ motivation in learning. In this case, teacher could use games, picture, music, video, and other media to avoid students’ boredom. Meanwhile, study refers to the activities dealing with the language features (grammar, lexical, structure, etc.). In this case, teacher should ask their students to analyze language features from sound to discourse. Activity refers to whole activities or tasks which are designed to get students using language as freely and communicatively as possible (Harmer, 2007: 26). In this case, students are provided with the exercises which represent the use of language in real life situation.

Don't Let Yourself to be A Trash

We can easily find the trash in every single places in our environment, including classroom. Imagine that if you are learning in a classroom where there are many thrashes in every single corners. Is it comfortable? Or is it familiar for you?

Why does it happen? Probably, it happens because of human creativity; they seek and utilize everything to be a trash bin. So, they are very creative, aren't they?

Although trash can easily be found everywhere, don't let yourself to be a trash...

Chapter Report 1 - Knowing Learners and Teacher Role

There are some important factors dealing with student which have to be taken into account by teachers in order to make their teaching and learning activity will be more meaningful and understandable by the students such as age, learner differences, and motivation.

In term of age, teachers have to decide the most suitable material to be taught to their learner. Young learners tend to be the enthusiastic and curious learners. But, they will also easily get bored when they are learning. In this case, teachers have to provide a rich, fun activity which allows them to be involved actively in teaching-learning activity using the environment as a media. In line with this Harmer (2002 p. 38) stated that teacher also have to set the classroom condition as interesting as possible to avoid students’ boredom.

Meanwhile, when we are facing the adolescence learner we have to make a different activity from the one made for young learner. At this age, learners tend to be uncooperative since they are in a process of searching identity (Harmer, 2002 p. 38). Mainly, the external problems faced by them often influence their performance in learning. Actually, if they are provided by the materials related to their characteristics, they will be more actively involved. In line with this, Harmer (2002 p. 39) said that teenagers, if they are engaged, have a great capacity to learn, a great potential for creativity, and a passionate commitment to things which interest them. 

According to Harmer (2002: 40) adult learners tend to be more critical if they find that the teaching method is not suitable. Besides, they are more discipline than teenagers. To make learning activity meaningful, teachers should provide, in my opinion the most appropriate activity is by conducting group or class discussion. Through this way, they can implement their own experiences in learning activity. Besides, teachers should be able to conduct a more challenging yet entertaining activity which can expose what students know about the particular materials. 

In classroom, teachers may find students who can learn language better than others. But, they also may find the slow-learners. It is difficult to accommodate them in one learning activity. If some students can get the point of what have been delivered, how about the rest? Based on my own experiences in high school, teachers provided various activities in their class. This actually accommodates the slow-learner to understand the main point of certain materials. Besides, she also gave enrichment tasks to those who have done better in class, and also gave remedial tasks to help those who fail. 

According to Willing (1987) adapted from Harmer (2002: 43) there are four learning styles in language learning: convergers (solitary learner), conformist (dependent learner), concrete learner, and communicative learner. When teachers are planning the activity, they have to consider whether it is suitable for them. Besides, they also need to pay more attention to them who need an extra treatment of language learning. Overall, teachers, in this case, need to make an activity which is best for group (whole students) and also for individuals within it (Harmer, 2002 p. 44).

Language proficiency levels basically are divided into three categories; beginner, intermediate, and advance. In delivering the materials, teacher needs to pay attention on the language used. For instance, we cannot use a complex language if we are teaching elementary students since it is not relevant with their characteristics. So, although teachers have a good proficiency in English, they should adjust their English to the level they are working with (Harmer, 2002: 45). Besides, the language used in classroom should be motivated the students to learn. In this case, teachers may use, at least, understandable English according to learners’ language level.

Regardless of any learner differences, teachers also need to recognize their student motivation in learning. As we know, they learn language with different kind of motivation; getting a job, continuing study, working abroad, studying abroad, etc. Basically, Harmer (2002: 51) stated that they are two kind of motivations, extrinsic motivation (motivation which is influenced by outside factors), and intrinsic motivation (motivation which comes form individual itself). Besides, teachers should also be able to direct and increase students motivation through stating a clear goal or objectives from the course, making conducive learning environment, and making the interesting classes. 

Besides knowing the learners, teachers also have to recognize their roles in classroom. This is very important to make their job more effective and meaningful.

In classroom, teachers’ function is not only the transmitter of information to students, but they are also a controller, an organizer, an assessor, a prompter, a participant, a resource, a tutor, and an observer (Harmer, 2002: 57-62). 

Based on the statement above, I will point out two teacher’s role; a controller and an assessor. First is teacher as a controller. The teachers have to be able to control the class by giving a clear instruction of what students need to do during their activity. In this case, teacher as controller is seen as the person who has influence to give inspiration to the students with his/her knowledge and charisma (Harmer, 2002: 58). It is true that teacher should be charismatic in classroom. Based on my experience, teachers who are charismatic are more respected by the students. Besides, the clarity when they are delivering materials is actually encouraged us to study harder. In addition, they will be assumed as a smart teacher - having a thorough knowledge in English. Of course, teachers should have a thorough knowledge of what they are delivered since teacher is seen as a very important resource in classroom. Many students believe that teacher was the smartest person there. 

The second one is teacher as an assessor. Being an assessor means that they have to judge their students as fair as possible based on their performance in the class. Besides, teachers also offer feedback and correction and grade them in various ways (Harmer, 2002: 59). Grading or scoring is very important to see whether their students make an improvement or not after teaching and learning activity. To make it clear, teacher should make criteria for the assessment itself so that students will know how and for what purpose they are assessed. For example, most of the lecturers in English Education Department do this role very well. They told us the scoring criteria (rubrics) at the beginning of the course. So, at the end of the course – if we fail – we cannot argue with the score given by the lecturers. 

Besides the roles explained above, teacher can also be a teaching media, language model, and provider of comprehensible input (Harmer, 2002: 64). Harmer (2002: 65) stated that mimes, expression, and gestures can be used as a source for conveying meaning and atmosphere. Teachers should be able to use many expressions, gestures, and mimes in order to avoid boredom during the activity, especially when they are teaching young learners. As we know that young learners, even adult learners, will get bored if their teacher cannot provide interesting and challenging learning activity. The use of gestures, mimes, and expression will become the ice breaking in teaching-learning activity. 

As a matter of fact, teacher can also be the language model for their students. Besides getting the language model from textbooks, reading materials, and audio and videotapes, learners tend to imitate their teachers’ language when, for example, saying the dialogue, reading aloud texts, and delivering materials (Harmer, 2002: 65). It makes clear that if the teacher is delivering the materials, he/she should use, at least, understandable English and try to minimize the pronunciation errors since he/she acts as a language model for the students.